The views and opinions expressed in these blogs are based on the authors’ original research and are shared for informational purposes. Due to the concise format, some points may be simplified and may not fully reflect the depth of discussion typically provided by our organization.
Our 2023 article, The Sustainable Development Goal of Zero Hunger cannot be Achieved without addressing Colonialism, Racism, and Climate Change, explores the historic and contemporary connections between colonialism, racism, and climate change and their enduring effects on hunger and malnutrition. The article concludes that, ultimately, the industrial rise of rich nations depended on the invention of race and extraction from the Global South during the European colonial era1 (Williams, 1944, Heblich et al., 2023, Stallard, 2023). This included through colonial practices such as the forced labour of enslaved people and land expropriation from Indigenous peoples. In turn, the Industrial Revolution launched climate change and later fossil fuel dependency, contributing to the creation of today’s climate crisis (Klein, 2019).
The article also briefly examines how the colonial disruption of local food systems continues to influence the present day, perpetuated by the global neoliberal trade regime. This impact is evident in the vast areas of fertile land in the Global South dedicated to producing monoculture cash crops for export to meet the needs of consumers in the Global North (Rehman, 2023; Bjornlund, 2022). Examples of these include coffee, tea, cacao, cotton, tobacco, palm oil, and out-of-season fruits and vegetables. Products like coffee are branded as “Italian” and chocolate as “Swiss”, with rare acknowledgment of their origins. In contrast, French grapes would never be shipped to another part of the world and the resulting wine considered anything less than French.
Meanwhile, countries in the Global South depend on cereals such as wheat and corn often grown in the Global North (Rehman, 2023). Despite Sub-Saharan Africa being a net agricultural exporter, food insecurity has increased largely due to the legacy of the export-oriented colonial agricultural production systems that neglected critical research and investment (Bjornlund, 2022). It is the only region in the world where increased export production has decreased per capita food production (Bjornlund, 2022). Prior to European colonization, farmers grew a diverse range of local food crops while local leaders and communities collectively managed food scarcity. Today’s heavily export-oriented monoculture agricultural system often prioritizes international markets over local needs, at the expense of both people and ecosystems, especially forests (World Rainforest Movement, n.d.).
In their analysis of colonialism and its impact on Africa, Ocheni and Nwankwo write that “colonialism distorted the satisfaction of local needs in terms of food production and other requirements in preference to production and satisfaction of foreign needs” resulting in food shortages and escalating food prices. They further emphasize that “The present-day situation where Africans now import their food is a carry-over from colonialism” (Ocheni & Nwankwo, 2012, p. 51).
In order to further explore this topic, we present the examples of land alienation in Kenya and the imposition of neoliberal trade in Haiti.
Land alienation in Kenya
During the pre-colonial period, Indigenous knowledge systems of crop production and management played a key role in increasing yields, retaining soil fertility and moisture, and preventing soil erosion in Kenya. This changed drastically during British colonial rule, as most colonies were mono-cultural and export-import-oriented. Land alienation (the appropriation of land for European settlers) was enacted by land ordinances with several laws enforced starting with the 1901 East Africa (Lands) Order in Council culminating with the 1902 Crown Land Ordinance which placed all land under Her Majesty the Queen of Britain (Okoth-ogendo, 1990). This had immediate impacts on local food production. For example, in the Agikuyu2 community, intensive land alienation meant the Agikuyu women now lacked fertile land for cultivation, crop management, and food storage, leading to increased destruction and spoilage of food crops due to poor storage (Muraya, 2020).
Additionally, the introduction of commercial fast-growing high-yield food crops by the European colonialists presented new challenges. These crops were often more vulnerable to increased temperatures and low rainfall, requiring costly farm inputs and mechanization which was unaffordable for Agikuyu women. The agricultural practices introduced by the European colonialists resulted in worsening land degradation (Great Britain Colonial Office Kenya, 1933). Notably, while maize was introduced to Africa by the Portuguese, the British colonial administration encouraged or coerced the Agikuyu and other communities into maize production, which led to a decline in the cultivation of their native crops of choice such as sorghum and millet, sweet potatoes, bananas and yams. The Agikuyu had mastered the production of these crops over millennia, which mitigated famines during drought.
Today maize is the main staple food among Kenyans, but its production has been in decline amid reoccurring droughts. Urgent calls are being made to reconsider the important role of native plant species that are not only micronutrient dense but can withstand ongoing extreme changes in weather patterns in a country where an estimated 1.2 million people are currently experiencing acute food insecurity (Chimbi, 2023, IPC, 2024).
Neoliberal trade in Haiti
In Haiti, food systems today are clearly tied to the effects of both colonization and neo-colonialism. Despite being forced to pay France a crippling debt of 112 million francs (~560 million USD today (Gamio et al, 2022, para. 5) to secure its national sovereignty, Haiti was largely food self-sufficient until the mid-1980s. For generations, Haitian farmers in rural communities had grown native corn, peas, and sorghum, which were micronutrient dense and well adapted to the country’s often steep terrain and to its climatic conditions (Joseph, et al. 2023).
Later, following the political turmoil after the François and Jean-Claude Duvalier dictatorships and under pressure from actors in the Global North, Haiti began to liberalize trade. In 1995, a coalition of USAID, the Inter-American Development Bank, FAO, US agribusiness consultants, Chemonics International, and President Bill Clinton forced Haiti to cut import tariffs on rice from 50 percent to three percent (Koski-Karell & Dortilus, 2023). This devastated local food producers, who could not and still cannot compete with lower-priced imports flooding the country.
Today, about 90 percent of rice, all cooking oil, and nearly half of all the food consumed in Haiti is imported (Koski-Karell & Dortilus, 2023). Recent calls are being made for an ethical investigation into current rice imports and measures to strengthen Haiti's agricultural sector (Reuters, 2024). Currently, the violent conflict between heavily armed gangs has been spreading to Haitian farmlands, further aggravating food prices. It’s estimated that five million people are currently experiencing acute food insecurity in Haiti (IPC, 2024).
Towards a more equitable future
This brief article provides a mere glimpse of the vast and complex history of colonialism and its impact on food systems today. We encourage those dedicated to unveiling injustices in food systems not to overlook the importance of historic context. Understanding the links between history and contemporary challenges and taking a restorative decolonial approach to understanding food systems will be crucial to advocate for meaningful, sustainable change and achieving the Sustainable Development Goal of zero hunger. Furthermore, the leadership, knowledge, and expertise of those with lived experience of the effects of colonialism, racism, and climate change will be essential to chart a path toward a more equitable food systems globally.
References
Bjornlund, V., Bjornlund, H., & Van Rooyen, A. (2022). Why food insecurity persists in sub-Saharan Africa: A review of existing evidence. Food Security, 14(4), 845–864. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-022-01256-1
Chimbi, J. (2023). Climate Resilient Indigenous Crops Underutilised even as Climate Change Threatens to Cripple Food Systems https://www.ipsnews.net/2023/03/climate-resilient-indigenous-crops-under-utilized-even-as-climate-change-threatens-to-cripple-food-systems/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=climate-resilient-indigenous-crops-under-utilized-even-as-climate-change-threatens-to-cripple-food-systems
Gamio, L., Méheut, C., Porter, C., Gebrekidan, S., McCann, A., & Apuzzo, M. (2022). Haiti’s Lost Billions. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2022/05/20/world/americas/enslaved-haitidebt-timeline.html
Great Britain Colonial Office Kenya (1933). Kenya Land Commission. Report, Sept. 1933 https://books.google.pt/books/about/Kenya_Land_Commission_Report_Sept_1933.html?id=gdP_GwAACAAJ&redir_esc=y
Heblich, S., Redding, S., & Voth, H.-J. (2023). Slavery and the British Industrial Revolution | CEPR. https://cepr. org/voxeu/columns/slavery-and-british-industrial-revolution
IPC (2024). Haiti: Acute Food Security Situation Projection Update for March - June 2024 https://www.ipcinfo.org/ipc-country-analysis/details-map/en/c/1156884/?iso3=HTI
IPC (2024). Kenya: Acute Food Insecurity Situation for February - March 2024 and Projection for April - June 2024 (ASAL) https://www.ipcinfo.org/ipc-country-analysis/details-map/en/c/1156893/?iso3=KEN
Joseph, L., Stephenson, M., Zanotti, L., Ricot, S. (2023). Sustainable agriculture and food sovereignty in Haiti: sharing knowledge and shaping understanding of food systems at the University of Fondwa. Front. Sustain. Food Syst., 13 November 2023, Sec. Social Movements, Institutions and Governance, Volume 7 - 2023 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1230763
Klein, N. (2019). On Fire: The Case for a Green New Deal. Simon & Schuster.
Koski-Karell, V., & Dortilus, E (2023). Colonialism Created Food Insecurity in Haiti, Now Climate Change Compounds It. Truthout. https://truthout.org/articles/colonialism-created-food-insecurity-in-haiti-nowclimate-change-compounds-it/
Muraya, M. W., Ngari, L.K., & Gathungu, G.K. (2020). Colonial Roots Of Food Shortage In Kenya: The Marginalizaion Of The Agikuyu Women’s Indigenous Knowledge System On Food Crop Production. International Journal of Liberal Arts and Social Science, 8(8), 14-24
Ocheni, S., & Nwankwo, B. C. (2012). Analysis of Colonialism and Its Impact in Africa. Cross-Cultural Communication, 8(3), Article 3. https://doi.org/10.3968/j.ccc.1923670020120803.1189
Okoth-ogendo (1990) Tenants of the Crown. East Africa Educational Publishers
Rehman, A. (2023). Vicious circle: Foreign currency, debt dependency and export agriculture in the Global South | War on Want. https://waronwant.org/profiting-hunger/2-vicious-circle-foreign-currency-debtdependency-and-export-agriculture-global
Reuters (2024). U.S. rice exports to Haiti have unhealthy levels of arsenic, study finds https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/us-rice-exports-haiti-have-unhealthy-levels-arsenic-study-finds-2024-02-24/
Stallard, M. (2023). Cotton Capital: How slavery made Manchester the world’s first industrial city. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/news/ng-interactive/2023/apr/03/cotton-capi… manchester-the-worlds-first-industrial-city
Williams, E. (1994). Capitalism and Slavery. University of North Carolina Press.
World Rainforest Movement. (n.d.). Colonization and the role of agriculture in a nutshell. Retrieved September 29, 2023, from https://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin-articles/colonization-and-the-role-of-agriculture-in-anutshell
